Legs, Arms, Feet, and Hands

Down below are some notes over the parts of legs and arms to help you learn about those parts. There are also pictures to help give you a visual. I took these notes as I learned and studied the parts of arms, legs, hands, and feet for a labeling test. Enjoy!

• Humerus Anterior View
• Left side

• Greater tubercle
• intertubercular
• shaft
• radial fossa
• lateral epicondyle
• capitulum
• Right side
• lesser tubercle
• head
• anatomical neck
• surgical neck
• deltoid tuberosity
• coronoid fossa
• medial epicondyle
• trochlea
• Right Radius Anterior View

• head of radius
• neck of radius
• radial tuberosity
• ulnar notch of radius
• styloid process of radius

• Right Ulna Anterior View

• trochlear notch
• radial notch of ulna
• ulna
• distal radial joint
• head of ulna

• Bones of the Right Hand Dorsal Aspect

• phalanges
• distal
• middle
• proximal
• metacarpals
• carpals
• capitate
• trapezoid
• trapezium
• scaphoid
• hamate
• triquetral
• lunate
• Femur Anterior View

• neck
• greater trochanter
• patellar surface
• lateral epicondyle
• lateral condyle
• head
• intertrochanteric line
• lesser trachanter
• adductor tubercle
• medial epicondyle
• medial condyle

• Fibula Anterior View

• head of fibula
• fibular notch
• lateral malleolus

• Tibia Anterior View

• medial condyle
• tibial tuberosity
• medial malleolus

• Bones of the Right Ankle and Foot

• phalanges
• distal phalanx of hallux
• proximal phalanx of hallux
• metatarsal bones
• head and 2 sesamoid bones
• body base
• tarsals
• medial cuneiform 
• intermediate cuneiform
• lateral cuneiform
• navicular
• talus
• cuboid
• sustentaculum tali
• calcaneus
• tuber calcanei 

Bones Growth and Broken Bones

Listed below are a couple notes that I felt were important when it came to bones. Also I listed notes on the fractures of bones and their healing process. Enjoy!


Bone Types/classification:

• axial skeleton
• appendicular skeleton
• long bones (longer than they are wide)
• short bones (cubed shaped bones/ form within tendons)
• flat bones (flattened, mainly in the skull)
• irregular bones (have complicated shapes

Chemical Composition of Bone:

• osteoblasts- bone forming cells
• osteocytes- mature bone cells
• osteoclasts- large cells that break down or resorb bone matrix
• osteoid- unminerlized bone matrix composed of proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and collagen

Bone Development:

• osteogenesis and ossification- the process of bone tissue formation which leads to:
• the formation of bony skeleton in the embryo
• bone growth until early adulthood
• bone thickness, remodeling, and repair

Functional Zones:

• growth zone- where the cartilage cells undergo mitosis
• transformation zone:
1. older cells enlarge 
2. matrix becomes classified
3. cartilage cells die
4. matrix begin to deteriorate
• osteogenic zone- new bone formation occurs
• Cartilage grows and then bone replaces it 

bone is resorbed and added by appositional growth as shown

Appositional Growth of Bone:

Bone Remodeling: 

• Remodeling units- adjacent osteoblasts and osteoclasts deposit and resorb bone at periosteal and endosteal surfaces

Control of Remodeling: 

• Two control loops regulate bone remodeling
• hormonal mechanism maintains calcium homeostasis in the blood
• mechanical and gravitational forces acting on the skeleton

Broken Bones

• classified
• the position of the bone ends after the fracture
• the completeness of the break
• the orientation of the bone to the long axis
• wether or not the bones ends penetrate the skin
• nondisplaced:
• bone ends retain their normal position 
  
• Displaced:
• bone ends are out of normal alignment      
  
       
• Complete:
• bone is broken all the way through 
  
• Incomplete:
• bone is not broken all the way through    
  
• Linear:
• the fracture is parallel to the long axis of the bone  
  
• Common types of fractures:
• comminuted
• spiral
• depressed
• compression
• epiphyseal
• greenstick
• Stages in Healing Fractures/Breaks:
• Hematoma formation:
1. torn blood vessels hemorrhage
2. a mass of clotted blood forms at the fracture site
3. site becomes swollen, painful, and inflamed
• Fibrocartilaginous callus forms
• granulation tissue forms a few days after the fracture
• capillaries grow into tissue and phagocytic cells begin cleaning debris
• bony callus formation 
• bone remodeling 

Integumentary System

Down below are some quick notes over the layers of skin and below that is a write-up over an example of what a burn does to your skin. Enjoy.

• Epidermis
• composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, consisting of 4 distinct cell types and 4 oor 5 layers
• cell types include keratinocytes, melanocytes, merkel cells, and langerhans cells
• outer portion of the skin is exposed to the external environment and functions in protection
• Layer:
• stratum basal
• stratum spinosum
• stratum granulosum
• stratum lucidum
• stratum corneum
• Dermis
• 2nd major skin region
• cell types
• fibroblasts
• macrophages
• mast cells
• white blood cells
• layers:
• papillary layer
• reticular layer
• Hypodermis
• subcutaneous layer deep to the skin
• composed of adipose and areolar connective tissue

The skin consists of three major regions: epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis. Our skin is the first line of defense against pathogens and preventing loss of fluids. When you get burned, the burn is prone to infection.  Severe burns can cause you to become dehydrated due because you burn through all your layers and through all your veins. The layer that functions as waterproofing is the stratum corneum layer.

There are three types of burns. The first burn I'll talk about it first-degree burn. First- degree burn is when the epidermis layer is the only one damaged. When you have a first-degree burn, you'll have redness, swelling, or pain. An example of a first-degree burn is a sunburn or touching a hot or cold object and takes about a week to heal. The next burn is second-degree burn. This burn damages the epidermis and the top layer of the dermis.  The symptoms of second-degree burn mimic first-degree but also blisters appear. The time it takes for these burns to heal depends upon how deep in the dermis the burn is. The third burn is called third-degree burn. This is when the entire thickness of the skin is damaged. Symptoms are the burn appears black, cherry red, or grey-white and there will be no pain due to the nerves being burned. Your skin usually prevents fluid loss but when you have a severe burn, it increases by a great amount. Since your body is losing lots of fluids, you have to replace them at the same rate you're losing them.

There is a way to measure burns, it's called the "rules of nine". This rule estimates the severity of burns. A burn is considered critical if over 25% of the body has second-degree burn, over 20% of the body has third-degree burn, or if there are third-degree burns on the feet, hands, or face. Down below is a link to a website I collected some information from to help me write this post and also I used information off of my teachers powerpoint.

http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/vander/humbody/reading2.mhtml

Tissue Engineering Techniques

Throughout the years, doctors have came up with new advance ways to do things thanks to all the new technology. Doctors have been focusing on growing body parts for the last twenty years. While they have been studying, they have found out a lot that they want to share with us. Doctors already know how to grow skin for patients that have been burned or have a skin condition where they lose skin.

Their next mission is to be able to grow body parts to replace some time near the future. They hope to be able to grow major body parts and other major functioning assets such as lab-grown cartilage and bone to relieve arthritis suffers and blood vessels, cardiac valves and muscle tissue. Their goal is to make kidneys, corneas, custom-made hearts, livers, breasts, bone marrow and bladders to help patients with diseases or life threatening illnesses. Their first step is to unlock the biochemical signals to influence growth and development. If they add the right combination of compounds, they can coax cells into growing and proliferating. When doing this, scientists need to pay close attention to the physical environment in which cells grow. Scientists can use biodegradable scaffolding to get the organs to look like human organs. By using this technique, cells will have better access to nutrients and waste removal.

Here in the U.S. a lady was in need of a ear and grew one on her arm. When it was done growing, the doctors cut it off and place it where se was missing an ear. Overtime it should look like a natural ear. Hopefully when this tissue engineering is complete, many life threatening illnesses and diseases can be cured and the waiting list for an organ transplant will disappear.


Down below are the sites I gathered my information from.

http://www.pbs.org/saf/1107/features/body.htm

http://gizmodo.com/5946943/woman-grows-a-new-ear-on-her-arm-has-it-attached-to-her-head-warning-graphic

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-24282498

Histology Lab: Microscopy of Dead Tissue

Down below are pictures that my group took of different kinds of tissues. Located under each picture is a description of the tissue above it. I hope you enjoy. 

Cardiac Muscle:

Description- branching, striated, generally uninucleate cells that interdigitate at specialized junctions 

Function- as it contracts, it propels blood into the circulation 

Location- the walls of the heart 

Skeletal Muscle:

Description- long, cylindrical, multinucleate cells

Function- voluntary movement; locomotion; manipulation of the environment; facial expression; voluntary control

Location- in skeletal muscles attached to bones and occasionally to skin

Puedo-stratified Columnar:

secretion and propulsion of mucus (makes mucus)

Stratified Squamous:

layers of thin epithelium cells, for protection to underlying layers and abration

Nervous Tissue:

Description- neurons are branching cells; cell processes that may be quite long extend from the nucleus-containing cell body; also contributing to nervous tissue are non irritable supporting cells

Function- transmit electrical signals from sensory receptors and the effectors which control their activity

Location- brain, spinal cord, and nerves

Transitional Epithelium:

stretches to permit the dissension of the urinary bladder

Human Models of Epithelia

A group of people were put together to demonstrate what the structure of different types of epithelia looks like. Down below are the pictures with the functions, location and definition of each structure.

ENJOY!

Stratified Cuboidal:

Description- Single layer of cube like cells

Location- Kidney tubules; ducts and secretory portions of small glands; ovary surface

Function- Secretion and absorption 

Pseudo-Stratified Cuboidal:

Description- Slightly thicker than squamous

Location- Lines the larger ducts of the mammary glands, sweat glands, and pancreas (protection)

Stratified Columnar:

Description- Single layer of tall cells with round to oval nuclei

Location- Non ciliated type lines most of the digestive tract, gallbladder, and execratory ducts of some glands; ciliated variety lines small bronchi, uterine tubes, and some regions of the uterus 

Function- Absorption; secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other substances; ciliated type propels mucus by ciliary action 

Stratified Squamous:

Description- Thick membrane composed of several cell layers

Location- Nonkeratinized type forms the moist linings of the esophagus, mouth, and vagina 

Function- protects underlying tissues in areas subjected to abrasion

Pseudo-stratified squamous:

Description- Thin cells on top of cells, found on outer layer of the ski 

Location- Oral cavity lining, esophagus, vaginal and anal canal (protection due to many layers)

Pseudo-stratified columnar:

Description- Single layer of cells of differing heights, some not reaching the free surface; nuclei seen at different levels; may contain goblet cells and bear cilia

Location- Non ciliated type in male's sperm-carrying ducts and ducts of large glands; ciliated variety lines the trachea, most of the upper respiratory tract

Function- Secretion, particularly of mucus; propulsion of mucus by ciliary action 

Transitional:
Description- Resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal; basal cells cuboidal or columnar; surface cells dome shaped or squamous-like, depending on degree of organ stretch
Location- Lines the ureters, bladder, and part of the urethra
Function- Stretches readily and permits dissension of urinary organ by contained urine

Organization of the Body

The link below will connect you to my presntation over the human body.

https://docs.google.com/a/lajunta.k12.co.us/presentation/d/1RyA7ehNp8EKa6Q3kSPuYrb6lDUrPLKfoyX6UUWSseGU/mobilepresent#slide=id.p

Homeostasis Lab

We did a lab that showed homeostasis taking place. There were many different changes that you could study to demonstrate homeostasis. The way my group picked was our heartbeat. We decided to swim and run. Remember homeostasis is  is the property of a system in which variables are regulated so that internal conditions remain stable and relatively constant.

Materials:

• Heart rate monitor
• swimming pool
• stairs
• pencil
• paper

Procedure:

 On the first day we did swimming and I, Leah, swam a total of 5 laps. The first 3 laps my heart rate went up by 40%, at 4 laps it went up by 66%, and at 5 laps I was at 53%. Christian also swam and her results were: 3 laps a rise of 4%, 4 laps a rise of 18%, 5 laps a rise of 6%. The next day we both ran stairs. Here are Christians results: 2 stairs a rise of 38%, 4 stairs a rise of 17%, and 6 stairs a rise of 21%. Here are my results: 2 stairs a rise of 53%, 4 stairs a rise of 19%, and 6 stairs a rise of 45%. 

Conclusion:

Everytime we collected data, the second result always went down then the third went right back up. I think this is because after the first time our body was going to homeostasis and thats why the second result was less. When we did something the third time it went right back up, but not by to much. Down below are graphs of the data we collected.

Homeostasis

When it comes to our daily life, homeostasis is beyond important. Homeostasis is the ability for us to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even thought the outside world changes continuously. During homeostasis the internal environment of the body is in a dynamic state of equilibrium. All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three interdependent components. The first one is the receptor. The job of this is it has a sensor that monitors the surrounding and reacts to the changes then sends the information to the second component, which is the control center. The control center determines the set point, analyzes the input it receives and then determines the appropriate response or course of action. The effector is the third component, which it provides the means for the control center's response to the stimulus. All the information flows from the control center to the effector along the efferent pathway. The outcome of the collected results then feed back to influence the stimulus. The feed back either depresses it causing the whole control mechanisms to shut down; this is also known as negative feed back. The feed back may also enhance it causing the reaction to continue at a faster rate, which is known as positive feedback.

The two ways your body can respond are by having a negative feed back or a positive feedback. Most control mechanisms are negative feedback. This means they go opposite in the way they are heading or the output shuts down what's going on reducing the intensity. Our body temperature changing is one of the many ways the nervous system maintains the constancy of the internal environment. There is a type of neural control mechanism that is seen in the withdrawal reflex, in which a hand is being jerked away from broken glass. The endocrine system is also important in maintaining homeostasis. An example of hormonal negative feedback is the control of blood glucose levels by pancreatic hormones. To continue regular metabolism, your body cells need a constant supply of glucose the produce cellular energy. For example if you have an intake of a lot of sugar, your blood sugar level shoots through the sky. The pancreas responds by secreting insulin into the blood.

                                           

The other way your body can respond is by having positive feedback. This is when the result of something causes the original stimulus to enhance that way the activity is accelerated. The change that occurs proceeds in the same direction as the initial disturbance, which pushes whats going on farther and farther from its rate. Positive feed back usually control infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustments. An example of positive feedback is labor contractions. The contraction become faster and faster until the baby is born. Oxytocin is what is being released that causes the contractions to continue. After the baby is born an event that ends the oxytocin is released and shuts off the positive feedback mechanism.
       
                               

Another example is when you get a cut and your body clots it. Down below is a picture explaining how it works.